Differences in Efficacy Among New and Old Potassium Binders in Dialysis Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Abstract

Introduction. Hyperkalemia is a common and serious complication in dialysis patients, with increased incidence and severity over time. Newer potassium binders, patiromer and sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (SZC), offer improved tolerability compared to older agents. This meta-analysis aims to evaluate the efficacy and safety of these newer binders in dialysis patients.
Methods. This systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) was conducted, adhering to PRISMA guidelines. Searches were performed in MEDLINE, PubMed, CINAHL, and EMBASE up to November 1, 2024. RCTs comparing patiromer or SZC to placebo, sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS), or calcium polystyrene sulfonate (CPS) in dialysis patients were included. Primary outcomes were differences in serum potassium levels. Secondary outcomes included adverse events (AEs) and mortality. Data were analyzed using fixed and random-effects models, and heterogeneity was assessed.
Results. Six RCTs, involving 3155 patients, were included. SZC and SPS significantly reduced pre-HD potassium levels compared to placebo (mean difference -0.68 mmol/L and -0.62 mmol/L, respectively; p<0.0001). Patiromer did not show a significant difference compared to placebo (mean difference -0.17 mmol/L; p=0.16). All treatments demonstrated a reduction in hyperkalemia events compared to placebo. Adverse event data were limited and not statistically analyzable, but no significant differences in total AEs were observed. Mortality data were sparse, with only one death reported in the placebo group. High heterogeneity was observed in the comparison between new and old binders/placebo. Conclusion. SZC and SPS effectively reduce pre-HD potassium levels in dialysis patients compared to placebo. Patiromer’s effect was not statistically significant. All binders reduced hyperkalemia events. Safety profiles appeared comparable, but data were limited. The lack of sufficient RCTs, especially those directly comparing newer binders, highlights a significant knowledge gap. Further studies are needed to evaluate long-term outcomes, including quality of life and cardiovascular effects, and to directly compare the efficacy and safety of different potassium binders in this population.

Keywords: Dialysis, Patiromer, Potassium, sodium zirconium cyclosilicate, Sodium polystyrene sulphonate

Introduction

The incidence of hyperkalemia is one of the most common complications of kidney disease. Its incidence increases in patients who previously experienced hyperkalemia, with successively shorter time between the episodes [1].

Patiromer and Sodium Zirconium Cyclosilicate (SZC), new exchange ions polymer resin and exchange ions microporous resin, were recently developed reducing adverse events and improving palatability compared to old potassium binders [24].

Furthermore, many studies in conservative CKD demonstrated that these new drugs reduce hyperkalemia in patients treated with RAASIs [5].

Many systematic reviews compared new potassium binders with old potassium binders or placebo, but no one performed it in dialysis patients [6].

The main objective of our metanalysis is to evaluate the difference in serum potassium levels after treatment with SZC and Patiromer compared to placebo, sodium polystyrene sulfonate or calcium polystyrene sulfonate. Furthermore, the safety needs to be evaluated among these potassium binders in this population, due to the different pharmacokinetics that improve them.

 

Methods

Data source and search strategy

This meta-analysis followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [7] and was conducted according to a pre-published protocol (CRD42024608049) [8, 9]. The literature search was designed and performed by two Authors (V.C. and A.P.). We performed a systematic, highly sensitive search in MEDLINE, PubMed, CINAHL and EMBASE for English-language articles without time or sex restriction up to November 1, 2024. Grey literature was screened through Google Scholar, SCOPUS and clinicaltrials.gov.

Study selection and data extraction

We included any randomized controlled trials (RCTs) testing the effects of potassium binders without sex restriction. Studies were included if provided information on outcomes of interest, such as 1) Differences in serum potassium concentration, 2) Adverse events (AEs), and 3) Mortality.

Studies were excluded if they included oncological patients, acute dialysis or CKD in conservative treatment.

Articles were screened by titles and abstracts by two independent investigators (V.C. and A.F.), excluding studies not pertinent to the topic and, subsequently, assessed the full texts to determine eligibility according to the pre-specified inclusion/exclusion criteria. Any disagreement on study judgments was discussed with a third author (V.M.) who was not involved in the selection process.

Reviews, letters, case reports and studies performed on children (age<18) were excluded from analyses but screened for potential additional references. Ongoing, unpublished trials were searched on the clinicaltrials.gov website. Authors of some of the included studies were contacted for additional information about study methods and unreported data.

Data analysis

Primary analysis will compute serum potassium differences between a network meta-analysis comparing each potassium binder/placebo. Secondary analysis will consist of a comparison between SZC/Patiromer and placebo/sodium polystyrene sulfonate or calcium polystyrene sulfonate.

All data will be analyzed with fixed-effect model or random-effect model based on the heterogeneity of the studies. Mean differences, and 95% confidence interval (CI), will be calculated for continuous outcomes. For dummy outcomes, the Odds Ratio (OR), computing 95% confidence interval (CI), will be computed. Data were pooled using the fixed-effects model and also analyzed with the random-effects method to guarantee the strength of the model. We plan to test for heterogeneity using the χ² statistic related to the degrees of freedom, with a p value of 0.05 used as the cut-off value to determine statistical significance. In addition, the degree of heterogeneity will be investigated by calculating the l² statistics. We will consider l² low if <25%, moderate if 25-50%, moderate-high if 50-75% and very high if >75%. In case of high heterogeneity, we will perform sensitivity analyses to explore sources of heterogeneity, such as study quality, year of publication, intervention or control variables, participants characteristics, and risk of bias. In addition, sub-group analyses will be conducted.

We will assess funnel plot asymmetry and the contour-enhanced funnel plot to explore publication bias, if the number of studies allows it. GRADE System will be used to evaluate the certainty of the evidence and to summarize the study conclusions. We planned to construct a summary table via the GRADEpro-GDT (GRADEpro GDT 2015) [10], reporting a summary of the available outcomes’ findings and the quality of the evidence supporting each outcome.

Statistical analyses were performed using Review Manager (RevMan; Version 5.4.) software and R4.4.0 software to perform the Network meta-analysis of all outcomes.

Quality and risk of bias assessment

The quality of RCTs was assessed by using the checklist developed by the Cochrane Renal Group which evaluates the presence of potential selection bias (random sequence generation and allocation concealment), performance bias (blinding of investigators and participants), detection bias (blinding of outcome assessors), attrition bias (incomplete outcome data), reporting bias (selective reporting) and possible other sources of bias.

 

Results

Search results

The selection process has been summed up in the flowchart (Figure 1). Two hundred and twenty-two references were retrieved. Among these, 95 were duplicates. By screening titles and abstracts, a total of 16 citations were selected for full-text evaluation. Among these, 6 articles were excluded because: 1) dealing with other populations or not reporting outcomes pertinent to the topic (n=7), 2) wrong intervention or no comparator (n=2), 3) duplicate (n=0), 4) various reasons (n=2). One study has been retrieved by Clinicaltrial.gov. Six articles referring to 5 full studies were reviewed in detail and included in the review [11, 15].

Figure 1. Study selection flow.
Figure 1. Study selection flow.

Study characteristics

All RCTs employed a parallel design. All studies were published after 2019. The final population analyzed in this review included 3155 patients, but the study sample sizes were variable, ranging from 33 [11] to 2690 [13]. The percentage of male participants varied from 49.3% [14] to 73% [15]. The mean age of patients ranged from 54 [11] to 66 [15] years. Three studies compared SZC to placebo, one study compared Patiromer to placebo, and one crossover study compared Patiromer to both placebo and SPS. The main characteristics of the eight RCTs reviewed are summarized in Table 1.

Trial reference Study population and its characteristics Intervention Comparator Study duration Outcome(s) Results Notes
NCT03781089

Thrice weekly HD, adults

Exclusion:

Pregnancies

-N=33

-Age (yr)= ~54

– Men (%)= 54.5%

– Hispanic = 18.2%

Countries= United States (single centre)

Patiromer (8.4mg/die)

 

N=17

SPS

(15g)

 

N=16

7 weeks Delta K Not reported Patients were checked up at 3, 5, 10, 14 and 27 weeks after initiation of treatment
hypekalemia events*

 

13 in patiromer group vs 41  in SPS group

AEs

Death: 0 in patiromer group vs 0

SAE: 2 in patiromer group vs 2

(Arrhythmia: 0 in patiromer group vs 1

Infection: 0 in patiromer group vs 1

FAV thrombosis: 1 in patiromer group vs 0

Hospitalization: 1 in patiromer group vs 0)

 

NCT03 303521

Thrice weekly HD, adults

Exclusion: Hemoglobin <9 g/dl

Pregnancies

-N= 196

-Age (yr)=58

-Men (%)= 58.7%

-Hispanic (%)= 52%

-Countries= Japan, Russia, US, UK

SZC (5-10 mg)

 

N=97

Placebo

 

N=99

11 weeks Delta K*

Mean difference between SZC and Placebo groups: − 0.74 mmol/L (95% CI − 0.97/− 0.52)

It is a post-Hoc analysis
hyperkalemia events

 

Not reported
AEs

Hypokalemia (k<2 mmol/L) was not registered in either SZC group or the placebo group

 

 

NCT03303521

 

Thrice weekly HD, adults

Exclusion: Hemoglobin <9 g/dl

Pregnancies

-N= 196

-Age (yr)=58

-Men (%)= 58.7%

-Hispanic (%)= 52%

-Cauntries= Japan, Russia, US, UK

SZC (5-10 mg)

 

N=97

Placebo

 

N=99

11  weeks Delta K Not reported
hyperkalemia events*

 

6/97 in SZC group vs 13/99 in placebo group
AEs

Total AEs: 40/97 vs 46/99 in placebo group

GI disorders: 19/97 vs 17/99 in placebo group

Infection: 12/97 vs 9/99 in placebo group

SAEs: 7/9 vs 8/99 in placebo group

 

NCT04847232

Recurrent serum K > 5.5 mmol/L in adults thrice weekly HD patients.

Exclusion:

-Pregnancies

-Arrhythmias within 7 days before screening

N= 2690

-Age (yr)=56

-Men (%)= NS

Countries=Argentina, Austria, Brazil,

Bulgaria, Canada, China, Czechia, Germany, Hungary,

Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru, Poland, Russian

Federation, Slovakia, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey,

Ukraine, the UK, the USA and Vietnam

SZC (5-10mg)

 

N= 1349

Placebo

 

N=1341

Delta K Not reported Although the RCT results were completed, data are published but available partially on clinicaltrial.gov

hyperkalemia events*

125 in SZC group vs 280 in placebo group
AEs

GI disorders: 251 vs 260 in placebo group

Infection: 295 vs 252 in placebo group

SAEs: 7/9 vs 8/99 in placebo group

NCT04217590

China adults thrice weekly HD patients with preHD K >5.4 mmol/L

Exclusion:

Pregnancies

-N= 134

-Age (yr)=55

-Men (%)= 49.3%

SZC (5-10 mg)

 

N=67

Placebo

 

N=67

11 weeks Delta K Mean difference between SZC and Placebo groups: –0.65 mmol/L (95% CI, –0.81 to –0.48; P < 0.001).

hyperkalemia events*

40/67  in SZC group vs 56/67 in placebo group

AEs

No severe hyperkalemia has been registered

hypokalemia 2/67 in SZC group vs 0/67 in placebo group

AEs 42/67 in SZC group vs 44/67 in placebo group

SAEs 6/67 in SZC group vs 8/67 in placebo group

Infection 0 in SZC group vs 1/67 in placebo group

Death 0 in SZC group vs 1/67 in placebo group

GI 6/67 in SZC group vs 9/67 in placebo group

SNCTP000003912

Swiss adults thrice weekly HD patients

Exclusion:

Pregnancies

-N= 51

-Age (yr)=66

-Men (%)= 73%

– Caucasian= 82%

– Countries= Switzerland (multicentric)

Patiromer

(8.4mg/die)

 

N=51

Placebo

 

N=51

8 weeks Delta K 0.15+0.16 mmol//l in patiromer group vs 0.32+0.06 in placebo group

unblinded two-arm

crossover RCTs

 

hyperkalemia events* 17% in patiromer group vs 34% in placebo group
AEs
SNCTP000003912

Swiss adults thrice weekly HD patients

Exclusion:

Pregnancies

-N= 51

-Age (yr)=66

-Men (%)= 73%

– Caucasia= 82%

-Countries= Switzerland (multicentric)

Patiromer (8.4mg/die)

 

 

N=51

SPS

(15g)

 

N=51

8 weeks Delta K 0.15+0.16 mmol//l in patiromer group vs  -0.3+0.05 in SPS group

unblinded two-arm

crossover RCTs

hyperkalemia events*

17% in patiromer group vs  12% in SPS group

AEs GI 26% in Patiromer group vs 24% in SPS group
Table 1. Summary of main characteristics and findings of the RCTs reviewed.

Study quality and risk of bias

Random sequence generation and allocation concealment were detailed in all trials. Three RCTs were double-blind, and one was open-label [15]. Blinding of participants, investigators and outcome assessors was specified in all studies. Attrition bias was low in all studies. The overall dropout rate was lower than 10 % for each study. Reporting bias was high in all studies. No other potential sources of bias were observed in the majority of studies (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Risk of bias.
Figure 2. Risk of bias.

Outcome data

Mortality

The three studies that compared SZC to placebo reported 114 deaths in the placebo group and 120 in the SZC group, and data on mortality were available.

Differences in potassium level

Data on pre-HD potassium value as a continuous variable were reported by 3 studies [12, 14, 15]. a pooled analysis involving 432 patients, both SPS and SZC showed a significant reduction in serum potassium levels compared to placebo, with a mean difference of –0.6200 (95% CI: [–0.89 / –0.35]; p < 0.0001) and –0.68 (95% CI: [–0.81 / –0.55]; p < 0.0001), respectively. Conversely, no differences between Patiromer and placebo were found (mean difference -0.17, 95%CI [-0.41/0.07], p=0.16). This collective analysis was not affected by heterogeneity (I²=0%) (Figure 3). The GRADE quality of this analysis was low after downgrading for the small number of the included studies.

Similarly, a meta-analysis comparing the new agent to the old agent/placebo showed a significant reduction of serum potassium in the new binders group (-0.47, 95%CI [-0.91/-0.02], p=0.04), but it revealed the highest heterogeneity (I²=94%).

Figure 3. Forest plot. Comparison between potassium binders on mean difference in serum potassium.
Figure 3. Forest plot. Comparison between potassium binders on mean difference in serum potassium.

Hyperkalemia events

Hyperkalemia has been reported in all studies. In this case, differences have been found in each group compared to placebo (Patiromer -0.791, 95%CI:[-1-0.078], p=0.030; SPS -0.998, 95%CI [-1-0.250], p=0.009; SZC  -0.620, 95%CI [-1-0.220], p=0.002). According to these results, all treatments can avoid pre-dialysis hyperkalemia (K>5.5 mmol/L) compared to placebo (Figure 4). However, it revealed the highest heterogeneity (I²=99%).

Figure 4. Forest plot. Comparison between potassium binders on hyperkalemia incidence.
Figure 4. Forest plot. Comparison between potassium binders on hyperkalemia incidence.

Adverse Events

Adverse events cannot be statistically analyzed since they are not reported in each study and, where reported, as non-aggregable data. However, no difference has been found for total AEs in the included studies. The same can be assessed either for gastrointestinal events, for infectious or for SAEs. They are detailed in Table 1.

 

Discussion

Our analysis showed a significant difference in the management of hyperkalemia for each potassium binder compared to the only dialytic treatment with a lower pre-HD potassium concentration for SZC and SPS, without significant hypokalemia recurrence.  At the same time, the recurrence of AEs not seem to be higher than only dialytic treatment.

Intradialytic hyperkalemia has been related to mortality and comorbidity, as well as hyperkalemia in conservative CKD [1719]. Furthermore, the worst management of potassium worsens the intradialytic cardiovascular risk due to the speediest correction, almost obliged in patients with kalemia higher than 6.5 mmol/L. Although diet education, disionemia is not easy to manage in dialysis patients, often due to the lack of alimentary compliance [20].

The higher reduction of serum potassium in SZC patients than in patiromer patients can be easily explained by the speedier efficacy of the first. Indeed, SZC results are speedier in the first 48h than patiromer, and serum potassium in dialysis patients needs management into the 48/72h without dialysis [21]. This difference in speed could be crucial in patients with acute hyperkalemia or those requiring rapid potassium normalization for urgent medical procedures.

As reported in the published protocol, highlighting possible gaps in actual knowledge was one of the aims and this systematic review revealed an important gap: the lack of sufficient RCTs. The crucial relevance of knowing the efficacy and the safety of these new drugs for clinicians should be juxtaposed with enough structured and dialysis-based RCTs. In particular, the lack of studies directly comparing the different potassium binders with each other makes it difficult to establish which is the optimal choice for dialysis patients. Future studies should focus on direct comparisons to provide more robust evidence.

The lack of a sufficient number of RCTs has been reported since the first decade of this century, highlighting the phenomenon of the “Invisible trial” [22]. Even though the Restoring Invisible & About palatability and adherence, no data available from RCTs exist even though the APPETIZE study ended in 2022 [23]. Abandoned Trials (RIAT) initiative on Cochrane evidence products showed a possible solution to this problem, trials for smaller populations are often not enough to generate evidence. Furthermore, the variability of dialysis patient populations, with different comorbidities and dialysis regimens, makes it difficult to generalize the results of existing studies. A personalized approach to hyperkalemia management is needed, taking into account the specific needs of each patient.

Furthermore, some studies compared the cost-effectiveness of new and old potassium binders, with evidence of slightly lower cost in the new K binders, often due to the reduction of hospitalisation [24, 25].

Nowadays, the small number of performed trials on dialysis patients represents the major limit of this systematic review. Indeed, the lack of RCT on hemodialysis did not allow us to give a clear opinion about the use of these drugs on dialysis patients, preventing us from fully understanding if there is one potassium binder more efficient or secure. It is a serious gap in our acknowledgement that needs to be solved. Also, hypokalemia, one of the major adverse events of these drugs, is not reported enough to compute a real risk. The lack of detailed data on adverse events, particularly hypokalemia, limits our ability to fully assess the safety profile of these drugs. Future studies should include a systematic assessment of adverse events, with particular attention to hypokalemia and its clinical consequences. One of the limitations of this systematic review is the highest heterogeneity, perhaps due to the small sample, the small number of included studies and the heterogeneity of the comparisons (SPS and Placebo).

 

Conclusion

In conclusion, according to our analysis, all potassium binders seem to have more efficacy than placebo and seem to have high safety. However, the knowledge gap cannot be solved due to the need for more RCTs, paying attention that all outcomes are evaluated and reported. Furthermore, it is essential that future studies focus on evaluating the long-term impact of these drugs on the quality of life of dialysis patients and on cardiovascular outcomes. The management of hyperkalemia must be integrated into a comprehensive approach to the care of the dialysis patient, taking into account their specific needs and comorbidities.

 

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Hyperkalemia in Hemodialysis: Use of Sodium Zirconium Cyclosilicate – A Single-center Experience

Abstract

Potassium is the main intracellular cation, and its serum concentration is finely controlled through various mechanisms to maintain it within the range of 3-5 mmol/L. Hyperkalaemia occurs when the serum concentration of K⁺ exceeds 5.0 mmol/L and can be classified as mild, moderate, or severe. Hyperkalaemia is a serious and potentially life-threatening medical condition, and its incidence tends to increase when comorbid conditions are present, such as diabetes mellitus, heart failure, and renal insufficiency, particularly in the subgroup of patients undergoing haemodialysis, where the incidence of hyperkalaemia is even higher. This leads to an increase in hospitalizations and mortality. Control of potassium in haemodialysis patients has always been a central focus for nephrologists, although chronic management strategies have often been ineffective and poorly tolerated by patients. Recently, two new medications have been introduced for chronic potassium control: Patiromer and Sodium Zirconium Cyclosilicate, the latter approved for use in haemodialysis. We conducted an observational study at our dialysis unit on 28 chronic haemodialysis patients, where after detecting hyperkalaemia, therapy with Sodium Zirconium Cyclosilicate was initiated. We evaluated the potassium levels over time, changes in home treatments, and the drug’s tolerability.

Keywords: potassium, hyperkalemia, sodium zirconium cyclosilicate, hemodialysis, chronic kidney disease

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Introduzione

Il potassio (K⁺) è il principale catione intracellulare ed è alla base del corretto funzionamento delle cellule e della regolazione del potenziale di membrana. Il K⁺ ha una concentrazione corporea stimata di 50-75 mmol/kg di peso corporeo, di cui solamente il 2% localizzato nel comparto extracellulare con una concentrazione di 3,5–5 mmol/L [1]. In condizioni normali la concentrazione sierica del potassio è finemente regolata da diversi meccanismi che possono essere suddivisi in bilancio esterno ed interno [1] con lo scopo di mantenere una concentrazione di potassio costante, indipendentemente dall’introito con la dieta. In seguito a un pasto ad alto contenuto di potassio la prima linea di difesa è rappresentata dallo shift del K⁺ dal comparto extra all’intracellulare (bilancio interno), per essere poi successivamente eliminato (bilancio esterno). In un soggetto sano il K⁺ è eliminato per il 90% dal rene che rappresenta la principale via d’escrezione, mentre solo il 5-10% del K⁺ è eliminato per via fecale, anche se questa percentuale può aumentare fino al 50% nei soggetti con insufficienza renale cronica avanzata (IRC) [2]. L’iperpotassiemia si verifica quando la concentrazione sierica di K⁺ supera i 5.0 mmol/L, e a sua volta può essere classificata in lieve, moderata e severa. L’iperpotassiemia è una condizione medica severa che può manifestarsi clinicamente con debolezza muscolare fino alla paralisi, aritmie cardiache, acidosi metabolica.  L’incidenza dell’iperpotassiemia nella popolazione generale non è nota, in studi di coorte su larghi campioni di popolazione vengono riportate incidenze comprese tra 1-3 casi ogni 100 persone/anno sulla popolazione generale [3], tuttavia nei soggetti con patologie come IRC, diabete mellito (DM) e scompenso cardiaco (HF) le percentuali tendono ad essere più elevate, con valori riportati fino all’ 11,5% nei pazienti con IRC (stadi 3-5); 9,1% nei soggetti con HF e 8,3% nei diabetici. Nel sottogruppo di pazienti con IRC in emodialisi (HD) il riscontro di iperpotassiemia pre-dialisi è molto comune [4, 5], con una prevalenza di iperpotassiemia definita come un valore di K⁺ > 6,0 mmol/L del 10-20% nel DOPPS [6], mentre in un altro studio condotto sempre nei pazienti in HD, con follow-up di 2 anni, vengono riportate percentuali di iperpotassiemia definite come un K⁺ > 5,5 mmol/L del 58% [4]. L’iperpotassiemia nella popolazione di emodializzati rappresenta un fattore prognostico negativo, un valore di K⁺ pre-dialisi > 5,6 mmol/L è associato con una aumentata mortalità e un aumento delle ospedalizzazioni [7, 8]. Di recente è stato pubblicato un position paper della Società Italiana di Nefrologia sulla gestione dell’iperpotassiemia nei pazienti nefropatici [9], andando più nello specifico per quel che riguarda la popolazione dei pazienti sottoposti a HD si suggerisce un potassio pre-dialisi compreso tra 4,6-5,3 mmol/L. Il raggiungimento di tale target non sempre è possibile nella pratica clinica quotidiana, anche per mancanza di terapie da utilizzare in cronico per ottenere un adeguato bilancio del potassio e spesso si riscontrano valori di K⁺ al di sopra del range desiderato. Negli ultimi anni sono entrati in commercio due nuovi farmaci per il controllo dell’iperpotassiemia approvati per l’utilizzo in cronico, il Patiromer e il Sodio Zirconio Ciclosilicato (SZC), permettendo così di ampliare le possibilità terapeutiche a disposizione per cercare di raggiungere i valori di K⁺ desiderati. Nel presente studio è stato valutato l’utilizzo del SZC nei pazienti sottoposti a emodialisi.

 

Materiali e metodi

Questo è uno studio osservazionale, monocentrico condotto presso il Reparto di Nefrologia e Dialisi dell’Ospedale San Paolo, Savona. Lo scopo del nostro studio è stato quello di valutare l’andamento dei valori sierici del potassio e la tollerabilità del trattamento Sodio Zirconio Ciclosilicato nei pazienti con iperpotassiemia che afferiscono presso il nostro centro dialisi. In questo studio abbiamo incluso solo pazienti in emodialisi cronica per un tempo maggiore di 3 mesi. Dal momento in cui il SZC è stato prescrivibile presso il nostro centro dialisi abbiamo iniziato a proporlo ai nostri pazienti nei quali veniva riscontrato un valore di potassio > 5,5 mmol/L agli esami pre-dialisi svolti durante la prima seduta dialitica della settimana, con l’obiettivo di ottenere un miglior controllo dei valori di potassio pre-dialisi. Prima di avviare il trattamento con SZC veniva eseguita una emogasanalisi (EGA) per valutare la concentrazione sierica di bicarbonati con un target maggiore di 20 mmol/L e contemporaneamente riconfermare il riscontro di iperpotassiemia, veniva inoltre valutato l’andamento del Kt/V calcolato con la ionic dialisance per escludere problematiche legate a una non corretta depurazione. Nei mesi successivi sono stati monitorati: l’andamento del potassio, l’equilibrio acido-base, le variazioni degli incrementi ponderali interdialitici, le modifiche delle terapie domiciliari, le variazioni della concentrazione del potassio nel dialisato, la modifica del regime e/o durata della dialisi.

Attualmente presso il nostro centro dialisi sono in trattamento con SZC un totale di 28 pazienti (14 femmine e 14 maschi), con una età media di 63,8 anni (range: 37-85), di cui 20 in regime dialitico trisettimanale (71,5 %) e 8 in regime bisettimanale (28,5 %). Dei 28 pazienti in studio 17 (61%) dializzano mediante una fistola arterovenosa, mentre 11 (39%) utilizzano un catetere venoso centrale. I trattamenti dialitici sono così suddivisi: emodiafiltrazione (HDF) 11 pazienti (39%), emodialisi estesa (HDx) 5 pazienti (18%), emodialisi ad alti flussi (HFHD) 12 pazienti (43%). La concentrazione di potassio nel dialisato è rispettivamente: di 2,0 mmol/L per il 57 % dei pazienti, di 2,5 mmol/L per il 25% dei pazienti e di 3,0 mmol/L per il 18% dei pazienti. Nella nostra popolazione 4 pazienti (14,2%) sono diabetici, 6 pazienti (21,4%) sono affetti da scompenso cardiaco compensato, 6 pazienti (21,4%) sono affetti sia da diabete che da scompenso cardiaco, mentre 12 pazienti non presentano nessuna delle due condizioni sopra descritte (Figura 1). Per quanto riguarda le terapie domiciliari: 5 pazienti assumono un ACE inibitore (ACEi), 6 pazienti assumono un Sartano (ARB) e 22 pazienti assumono un Betabloccante (BB) (Figura 2). Il Kt/V medio calcolato con la ionic dialisance di ciascun Paziente, valutando i valori delle 10 sedute precedenti l’avvio della terapia con SZC era di 1,27. Caratteristiche basali dei pazienti sono riportate nella Tabella 1.

Figura 1. Comorbidità della popolazione in studio DM: diabete mellito; HF: scompenso cardiaco.
Figura 1. Comorbidità della popolazione in studio DM: diabete mellito; HF: scompenso cardiaco.
Figura 2. Riassunto delle terapie domiciliari della popolazione in studio.
Figura 2. Riassunto delle terapie domiciliari della popolazione in studio.
Riassunto delle caratteristiche della popolazione in studio
Tabella 1. Riassunto delle caratteristiche della popolazione in studio. K: potassio in mmol/L; ACEi: inibitori dell’enzima di conversione dell’angiotensina; ARB: Sartanici antagonisti del recetettore dell’angiotensina; B-bloccanti: betabloccanti.

 

Analisi statistica

I valori di potassio pre- e post-SZC sono stati valutati dopo un follow-up medio di 11 mesi, i risultati dei valori del potassio sono riportati come media ± deviazione standard. L’analisi statistica è stata eseguita un t-test per campioni appaiati, la significatività statistica è stata definita per p < 0,05.

 

Risultati

Dei 28 pazienti inclusi nello studio in trattamento con SZC tutti hanno iniziato al dosaggio di 5 g nei giorni di non dialisi, solo in 2 pazienti è stato necessario aumentare la dose a 10 g per la persistenza di iperpotassiemia ai controlli successivi, entrambi i pazienti erano già in regime dialitico trisettimanale e dializzavano con una concentrazione di potassio di 2 mmol/L nel dialisato. Attualmente dopo un follow-up medio di 11 mesi (range: 4 – 21), abbiamo registrato una riduzione dei livelli medi di potassio pre-dialitici ai controlli ematochimici eseguiti nel tempo (Figura 3). Al momento dell’avvio della terapia con SZC il potassio medio riscontrato agli esami pre-dialisi nell’intervallo lungo era di 6,11 mmol/L ± 0,306 (6,9-5,6 mmol/L). Nei 28 pazienti in studio agli ultimi esami ematochimici di controllo eseguiti il valore medio pre-dialisi del potassio era di 4,88 mmol/L ± 0,411 (4,1-5,3 mmol/L) (Figura 4), registrando una differenza nei valori medi del potassio di 1,23 mmol/L, l’analisi statistica di confronto tra le medie pre- e post- SZC è risultata significativa con una p-value  < 0,0001. All’interno del sottogruppo del 18% dei pazienti che dializzavano con dialisato con K 3,0 mmol/L il potassio medio pre-trattamento era di 6,18 mmol/L ± 0,415 (6,9-5,9 mmol/L), mentre agli ultimi esami di controllo eseguiti il valore medio del potassio era 4,96 mmol/L ± 0,207 (5,1-4,7 mmol/L) con p-value 0,0079. Durante il periodo di osservazione non abbiamo registrato variazioni nei valori di pH pre- e post-avvio del trattamento, né nei valori della concentrazione dei bicarbonati, mantenendo una concentrazione media di bicarbonati di 20,7 mmol/L pre-SZC e di 20,5 mmol/L post-SZC. Gli incrementi ponderali interdialitici si sono mantenuti costanti nel tempo (Tabella 2). Per quanto riguarda la concentrazione del potassio nel dialisato, non si sono rese necessarie riduzioni della concentrazione in quel 43% di pazienti con valori tra 2,5 mmol/l e 3,0 mmol/L, così come negli 8 pazienti in regime bisettimanale non è stato necessario incrementare la frequenza delle sedute dialitiche settimanali. Per quel che riguarda le terapie domiciliari con ARB o ACEi durante il periodo di osservazione non si sono rese necessarie riduzioni della dose o sospensioni di questi farmaci. Dei 28 pazienti in studio 6 assumevano saltuariamente a domicilio SPS, mentre 13 pazienti lo avevano già assunto in passato, ma ne avevano interrotto l’assunzione per scarsa palatabilità. Per quanto riguarda gli effetti indesiderati, non abbiamo registrato ai controlli successivi episodi di ipopotassiemia (K⁺ < 3,5 mmol/L), né la comparsa di edemi o variazioni degli incrementi ponderali interdialitici, abbiamo registrato solo 3 effetti collaterali minori di tipo gastrointestinale (stipsi in 2 pazienti; distensione addominale 1 paziente) che non hanno però portato alla sospensione del farmaco.

Figura 3. Andamento del potassio (in mmol/L) a inizio della terapia e all’ultimo controllo per i singoli 28 pazienti.
Figura 3. Andamento del potassio (in mmol/L) a inizio della terapia e all’ultimo controllo per i singoli 28 pazienti.
Figura 4. Potassio medio (in mmol/L) dei 28 pazienti a inizio terapia e al momento dell’ultimo controllo.
Figura 4. Potassio medio (in mmol/L) dei 28 pazienti a inizio terapia e al momento dell’ultimo controllo.
Riassunto delle variazioni prima e dopo l’avvio della terapia con SZC.
Tabella 2. Riassunto delle variazioni prima e dopo l’avvio della terapia con SZC. Potassio in mmol/L; Bicarbonato in mmol/L; incremento ponderale in kg.

 

Discussione

Nella pratica clinica quotidiana il riscontro di iperpotassiemia in un paziente emodializzato si traduce spesso in una riduzione della concentrazione del potassio nel dialisato, in un aumento del numero delle sedute settimanali o nell’aumento della durata delle singole sedute di dialisi. In alternativa l’iperpotassiemia porta a ridurre o sospendere i farmaci inibenti il sistema renina angiotensina (RASi) [10], oppure a intervenire sulla dieta, andando a limitare l’assunzione di cibi ad alto contenuto di potassio [11]. Tutte queste misure volte a migliorare il controllo del potassio nei pazienti emodializzati presentano però degli aspetti negativi e non sono esenti da complicanze nel medio e lungo termine. Essendo il K⁺ una piccola molecola, in HD il principale meccanismo di rimozione del K⁺ è la diffusione, ma l’utilizzo di un dialisato con basse concentrazioni di potassio o con un alto differenziale tra il potassio del paziente e il liquido di dialisi è associato a un aumento di eventi aritmici e di mortalità [12, 13]. La sospensione o riduzione della terapia con RASi nei pazienti con insufficienza renale cronica e nei pazienti con scompenso cardiaco si è dimostrato portare a peggiori outcome in termini di mortalità, in quanto si vanno a privare questi pazienti di terapie cardio-nefroprotettive [10, 14, 15]. Il ricorso a restrizioni dietetiche è dibattuto in letteratura, l’associazione tra iperpotassiemia e l’assunzione di alimenti ad alto contenuto di potassio nei pazienti dializzati è debole [16], mentre comporta come conseguenza un ridotto apporto di fibre con la dieta, che può provocare stipsi e di conseguenza aggravare potenzialmente l’iperpotassiemia, inoltre si va a limitare l’assunzione di alimenti sani ricchi di oligoelementi che si sono dimostrati protettivi anche in questa sottopopolazione [17]. Tuttavia, i dati attuali in letteratura non permettono una completa liberalizzazione della dieta nei pazienti in emodialisi, soprattutto in quelli anurici [18], è perciò buona norma un approccio nutrizionale mirato e completo in modo da garantire al paziente un adeguato apporto proteico calorico associato a un ricco apporto di fibre [19]. Il controllo dell’iperpotassiemia ha sempre rappresentato una sfida, dovendo bilanciare terapie cardio- e nefroprotettive, cercando contemporaneamente di controllare il potassio. In corso di iperpotassiemia un’opzione terapeutica è rappresentata dall’utilizzo delle resine, in particolare fino al recente passato la resina maggiormente utilizzata anche per assenza di alternative era il sodio polystirene sulfonato (SPS), una resina a scambio ionico non selettiva che agisce a livello gastrointestinale. A causa della scarsa palatabilità e degli eventi avversi anche severi il SPS è poco utilizzato nella pratica clinica [20, 21]. Di recente sono entrati in commercio e nella pratica clinica due nuovi farmaci per il controllo dell’iperkaliemia approvati per l’utilizzo in cronico, il Patiromer e il Sodio Zirconio Ciclosilicato (SZC). Il Patiromer è un polimero sintetico non riassorbibile che scambia ioni di calcio per potassio, sodio e magnesio, il suo profilo di efficacia e sicurezza è stato testato in diversi trial clinici PEARL-HF e OPAL-HK [22, 23], ma attualmente non è prescrivibile nei pazienti in emodialisi. Il Sodio Zirconio Ciclosilicato è un cristallo non assorbibile, scambiatore di cationi altamente selettivo per il K⁺, che inizia ad agire già a livello del piccolo intestino con un effetto dose-dipendente. Il trial clinico HARMONIZE ha indagato l’efficacia e la sicurezza del SZC [24, 25], mentre il trial HARMONIZE-extension ha mostrato che il SZC è in grado di mantenere la normopotassiemia anche nel lungo periodo [26]. L’utilizzo del SZC è stato inoltre studiato anche nei pazienti in emodialisi nel trial DIALIZE, dimostrando un potassio pre-dialisi compreso tra 4,0-5,0 mmol/L nel 41,2 % dei pazienti trattati con SZC rispetto all’1% dei pazienti nel gruppo placebo [27]. Il SZC è prescrivibile nei pazienti in emodialisi con una dose raccomandata di 5 g titolabile a 15 g da assumere i giorni di non dialisi. I principali eventi avversi riportati in letteratura legati all’uso di SZC, riportati nella Tabella 3 sono stati: l’ipopotassiemia, effetti gastrointestinali e la comparsa di edemi che si sono però manifestati ad alte dosi di SZC (30 g); è comunque importante ricordare che 5 g di SZC presentano un contenuto di sodio di 400 mg [28], ma comunque inferiore rispetto a 15 g di SPS che contengono circa 1500 mg di sodio. Nella nostra popolazione di pazienti sottoposti a emodialisi che presentavano iperpotassiemia, affetti da diverse comorbidità, in polifarmacoterapia, l’aggiunta di SZC in terapia si è dimostrata efficace nel controllo di valori di potassio predialisi, senza impattare sull’equilibrio acido-base, sull’incremento ponderale interdialitico, né ha condotto alla comparsa di edemi. Con l’avvio del SZC non è stato necessario modificare la concentrazione di potassio nel dialisato né dover incrementare la dose/frequenza dialitica per poter ottenere un miglior controllo dei livelli di K⁺. Il farmaco inoltre è stato ben tollerato da parte dei pazienti, infatti nessuno ha sospeso il trattamento, come dimostrato dall’andamento dei valori del potassio.

Tabella 3. Eventi avversi del Sodio Zirconio Ciclosilicato. Eventi riportati in percentuale e per il nostro studio tra parentesi in numero assoluto.
Tabella 3. Eventi avversi del Sodio Zirconio Ciclosilicato. Eventi riportati in percentuale e per il nostro studio tra parentesi in numero assoluto.

Conclusione

Il Sodio Zirconio Ciclosilicato rappresenta ad oggi un’arma aggiuntiva a disposizione del nefrologo da poter utilizzare per poter migliorare il controllo dei valori di potassio nei pazienti sottoposti a emodialisi. Il suo utilizzo come dimostrato dal trial Dialize è in grado di ridurre in maniera efficace i valori di potassio predialisi, permettendo di non andare a modificare o sospendere le terapie cardioprotettive, ed eventualmente consentendo di utilizzare concentrazioni di potassio maggiori nel bagno di dialisi, con la possibilità di ridurre il delta tra potassio sierico e dialisato, andando così a mitigare il rischio aritmico e cardiovascolare nei pazienti sottoposti a emodialisi. L’utilizzo del SZC oltre che efficace si è anche dimostrato sicuro con una bassa percentuale di eventi avversi.

 

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Comparison Among Potassium Binders on the Management of Hyperkalemia on Chronic Dialysis Patients: A Protocol for Systematic Review

Abstract

Introduction. Treating hyperkalemia is one of the main goals of supportive care in patients on hemodialysis. In this context, therapy with new potassium binders is a promising resource.
Objective. The main aim is to evaluate the difference in serum potassium concentration after treatment with sodium zirconium cyclosilicate or patiromer compared to placebo/sodium polystyrene sulfonate/calcium polystyrene sulfonate.
Methods. We will perform systematic research in PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHLE, and grey literature will be screened. We will screen RCTs on patients treated with SZC or patiromer in chronic hemodialysis, without sex or age restriction, which include the differences in serum potassium concentration, adverse events (AEs), and mortality as outcomes.
Expected results. This systematic review is expected to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the efficacy and adverse effects of new potassium binders, compared to sodium polystyrene sulfonate or calcium polystyrene sulfonate or placebo, on serum potassium concentration, in a sample of hemodialysis patients. Furthermore, possible gaps in actual knowledge can be highlighted, suggesting new research.
Conclusions. The present protocol for a systematic review will consider all existing evidence from published RCTs about the efficacy of potassium binders on hemodialysis patients.

Keywords: Potassium binders, sodium zirconium cyclosilicate, patiromer, hyperkalemia, CKD, Hemodialysis

Introduction

The incidence of Hyperkalemia is common in kidney diseases, and its incidence increases in patients who previously experienced hyperkalemia, similarly to patients with diabetes or assuming RAASIs, with successively shorter time between the episodes [1].

Patiromer and Sodium Zirconium Cyclosilicate (SZC), an ion-exchange polymer resin and an ion-exchange microporous resin, were developed in the second decades of the third millennium, reducing adverse events [24].

The increased risk of mortality and morbidity in hyperkalemia is well-known [5, 6], as well as their increased incidence in patients treated with RAASIs.  It occurs because RAASIs reduce the aldosterone-related potassium excretion that physiologically occurs in the distal and collecting tubule. Despite this, RAASIs showed nephroprotective and cardioprotective action, and it makes RAASIs useful to use. For this, new potassium binders, also aimed to better manage hyperkalemia in patients treated with RAASIs, managing pre-dialysis serum potassium that is considered a risk factor of cardiovascular mortality [7].

 

Aims and scope

The main objective is to evaluate the difference in serum potassium levels at different time points after treatment with SZC and patiromer compared to placebo, sodium polystyrene sulfonate or calcium polystyrene sulfonate.  The rationale for using potassium binders is to reduce pre-HD serum potassium, allowing a mitigation of interdialytic potassium changes and reducing the risk of arrhythmia.

Furthermore, the safety needs to be evaluated among these potassium binders in this population, due to the different pharmacokinetics that improve them.

Methods

Design and registration

This systematic review protocol follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA-P) guidelines [8]. This review protocol will also be registered in the PROSPERO database.

Search strategy

We will perform systematic research in MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CINAHLE, looking for published randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Grey literature will be screened through Google Scholar, Scopus and ClinicalTrials.gov. Only RCTs will be included in the study.

We will search for papers in the English language, and we will include only European and American countries, to avoid heterogeneity in the population. Reference lists from eligible trials and related reviews will also be reviewed, in order to find additional potential eligible studies. Ongoing, unpublished trials or further data from published trials will be researched on ClinicalTrials.gov. Finally, where needed, we will contact the experts in the field.

Search details are summarized in Table 1.

MEDLINE 127
((Potassium binders) OR (lokelma) OR (sodium zirconium cyclosilicate) OR (Veltassa) OR (patiromer)) AND ((Placebo) OR (Kayexalate) OR (sodium polystyrene sulfonate) OR (sorbisterit) OR (calcium polystyrene sulfonate)) AND ((dialysis) OR (Hemodialysis) OR (peritoneal dialysis) OR (CKD) OR (Chronic Kidney Disease)) AND ((Potassium) OR (hyperkalemia)) ‘Filters: Clinical Trial, Randomized Controlled Trial’
CINAHL 8
#1 Potassium Binders

#2 Lokelma

#3 Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate

#4 Veltassa

#5 Patiromer

#6 Placebo

#7 Kayexalate

#8 Sodium polystyrene sulfonate

#9 Sorbisterit

#10 Calcium polystyrene sulfonate

#11 Dialysis

#12 hemodialysis

#13 Peritoneal dialysis

#14 CKD

#15 Chronic Kidney Disease

#16 Potassium

#17 Hyperkalemia

#18 #1 OR #2 OR #3 OR #4 OR #5 OR #6 OR #7 OR #8 OR #9 OR #10

#19 #11 OR #12 OR #13 OR # 14 OR #15

#20 # 16 OR #17

#21 #18 AND #19 AND #20 in Trials

EMBASE 87
((‘Potassium binders/exp’ OR ‘lokelma’ OR ‘sodium zirconium cyclosilicate’ OR ‘Veltassa’ OR ‘patiromer’) AND (‘Placebo’ OR ‘Kayexalate’ OR ‘sodium polystyrene sulfonate’ OR ‘sorbisterit’ OR ‘calcium polystyrene sulfonate’) AND (‘dialysis’/exp OR ‘hemodialysis’/exp OR ‘peritoneal dialysis’/exp OR ‘chronic kidney disease’ OR ‘CKD’/exp) AND (‘potassium’ OR ‘hyperkalemia’/exp)) AND (‘Clinical Trial’ OR ‘Randomized Controlled Trial’)
Table 1. Search strategy PubMed and EMBASE.

Eligibility criteria 

PICO strategy will be applied as follows:

– Population: we will compare the efficacy and the adverse effects in patients treated with SZC or patiromer. Eligible RCTs will consider subjects with chronic hemodialysis, without sex or age restriction. Exclusion criteria correspond to CKD in conservative treatment, acute hemodialysis, and oncological disorders.

– Intervention: SZC or Patiromer

– Comparator: placebo, sodium polystyrene sulfonate or calcium polystyrene sulfonate.

– Outcome: differences in serum potassium concentration, Adverse events (AEs), and mortality.

– Study design: Randomized clinical trials (RCTs)

Literature screening and study selection

The summary will be shown using the PRISMA flow diagram [9]. Duplicate will be removed.

Studies will be screened first by title and abstracts by two independent authors and any disagreement will be discussed with a third author. All abstracts will be screened using Rayyan software, whereas all full-text articles will be screened using the Mendeley software desktop.

Data extraction

Studies will be screened first by title and abstracts by two independent authors and any disagreement will be discussed with a third author with Rayyan software. Subsequently, the full texts of the selected studies will be read and assessed by two independent authors and any disagreement will be discussed with a third author. Reasons for the exclusion will be reported for each study. The selection process will be described through the PRISMA flow diagram.

The following data will be extracted through a standardized extraction Excel sheet by two independent authors:

  1. General characteristics of the study (design, settings, sample size)
  2. Participant characteristics: inclusion and exclusion criteria; number of participants screened and included; average age; comorbidities; sex; area of recruitment
  3. Intervention characteristics: type and duration of the treatment and the follow-up
  4. Adverse events: number of participants affected by adverse events, description of the adverse events and number of dropouts.

Missing data will be obtained by contacting the included studies’ authors. We will send emails three times in three months.

We will include RCTs to allow a high-grade validity of this systematic review. If needed for insufficient data, we will include non-RCTs and observational studies.

Data items

Identification of the study: this will include the name of the journal, article DOI, article title, authors, publication year, short citation, and country.

Methods: study objectives, study design, inclusion and exclusion criteria, intervention, comparator characteristics, population details and results will be included.

For intervention and comparator will be specified type, dose, duration, frequency, and mode of administration.

For population, detail will be detailed mean age, sex, and number of participants. Results will describe summary statistics, effect estimates, confidence intervals, p-values, subgroup analyses, sensitivity analyses, risk of bias, and GRADE.

We plan to perform subgroup analyses based on age (< or > 18 years), hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, and a network analysis for different potassium binders will be performed.

Main findings: this will include patient characteristics and other relevant clinical outcome measures.

Methodological quality assessment 

For the systematic review, the method of assessing the risk of bias or study quality, and for the data extraction will be structured as follows: studies will be screened first by title and abstracts by two independent authors and any disagreement will be discussed with a third author with Rayyan software.

Blinding: the study selection, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment will be performed without blinding the assessors to the study authors or the journal of publication.

Strategy for data synthesis: qualitative synthesis of the results based on risk of bias will be performed. If applicable, quantitative synthesis through a meta-analysis will follow. The risk of bias will be assessed independently by two authors, using the ROB 2.0 Tool for each outcome of interest. Any disagreement will be discussed with a third reviewer. RobVis visualization tool will be used to create the RoB graph.

 

Meta-analysis

Primary analysis will compute serum potassium differences between SZC/Patiromer and placebo/sodium polystyrene sulfonate or calcium polystyrene sulfonate. Secondary analysis will consist on a network metanalysis comparing each potassium binder/placebo. All data will be analyzed with fixed-effect model or random-effect model based on the heterogeneity of the studies. Mean differences, and 95% confidence interval (CI), will be calculated for continuous outcomes. For dummy outcomes, the Odds Ratio (OR), computing 95% confidence interval (CI), will be computed. Data were pooled using the fixed-effects model and also analyzed with the random-effects method to guarantee the strength of the model. We plan to test for heterogeneity using the χ² statistic related to freedom degrees, with a P value of 0.05 used as the cut-off value to determine statistical significance. In addition, the degree of heterogeneity will be investigated by calculating the l² statistics. We will consider l² low if <25%, moderate if 25-50%, moderate-high if 50-75% and very high if >75%. In case of high heterogeneity, we will perform sensitivity analyses to explore sources of heterogeneity, such as study quality, year of publication, intervention or control variables, participants characteristics, and risk of bias. In addition, sub-group analyses will be conducted. We will use RevMan 5.4 software to perform the meta-analysis of all outcomes, and R4.4.0 software to perform the Network meta-analysis of all outcomes.

We will assess funnel plot asymmetry and the contour-enhanced funnel plot to explore publication bias. GRADE System will be used to evaluate the certainty of the evidence and to summarize the study conclusions.

 

Ethics

This is a systematic review that will use published data and does not require ethical approval, but each included study have to enrol patients after written consent and approval ethical code.

 

Status of the study and dissemination plan

We are starting the literature search, but the selection has not already started. We expect to complete the project and report it in 12 months. We will follow the updated PRISMA guideline to report the final paper and we will upload the progress on the PROSPERO website. Furthermore, we hope to publish a systematic review in a Nephrological journal.

 

Discussion

Serum potassium levels deviation from the normal range increases morbidity and mortality, both in conservative CKD [10, 11] and dialysis patients [12].

Considering that levels both lower or upper normal range are related to increased mortality and morbidity, hyperkalemia seems to significantly increase mortality and morbidity [5, 6]. This can be explained by the higher risk of arrhythmia in patients with rapid potassium intradialytic oscillations. About this, guaranteeing normal serum potassium on interdialytic days is needed to avoid rapid intradialytic oscillation [13].

The hyperkalemic effect of RAASIs can be physiologically explained, by a reduced urinary potassium excretion in the distal and collecting tubule, as well as by an increased potassium movement through the extracellular space [14].

It is well known that RAASIs are able to reduce fibrosis [15] and that they can reduce mortality and hospitalization [16], for this is needed to find a solution to manage hyperkalemia RAASIs-related.

Indeed, new potassium binders allow for better management of RAASI treatment in CKD patients, as well as reduced hypokalemia as an adverse effect compared to old potassium binders. For these reasons, an inclusive systematic review is needed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of each potassium binder.

 

Conclusion

This protocol deeply describes the methods and criteria used to perform a systematic review of the literature, including selection, extraction, biases evaluation, and synthesis of data from published RCTs evaluating the efficacy and safety of various potassium binders. We hope that this systematic review will increase the current knowledge and will hypothesize possible future research to overpass current gaps.

 

Bibliography

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