Impact of Serum Phosphorus on Hemoglobin: A Literature Review

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Fortunata Zirino

DOI: 10.69097/41-04-2024-03

Fortunata Zirino1, Antonella Lipari1, Alessia Tigano1, Alfio Edoardo Giuffrida1, Concetto Sessa1, Dario Galeano1, Ivana Alessandrello1, Roberta Maria Messina1, Roberta Pilato2, Walter Morale1, Vincenzo Calabrese3

1 Unit of Nephrology and Dialysis, P.O. Maggiore “Nino Baglieri”, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
2 Department of General Surgery and Medical-Surgical Specialty, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
3 Unit of Nephrology and Dialysis, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, A.O.U. 'G. Martino', University of Messina, Messina, Italy

Corresponding author:
Vincenzo Calabrese
v.calabrese@outlook.it
telephone number: +39 3208736905

 

Abstract

Phosphorus is a macroelement found in the body, mostly in the bones as crystals of hydroxyapatite. Higher levels are found in patients affected by chronic kidney disease (CKD). Since the early stage of CKD phosphorous excretion is impaired, but the increase of PTH and FGF23 maintains its level in the normal range. In the last decades, the role of FGF23 in erythropoiesis was studied, and now it is well known for its role in anemia genesis in patients affected by conservative CKD. Both Hyperphosphatemia and anemia are two manifestations of CKD, but many studies showed a direct association between serum phosphorous and anemia. Phosphorus can be considered as the common point of more pathogenetic ways, independent of renal function: the overproduction of FGF23, the worsening of vascular disease, and the toxic impairment of erythropoiesis, including the induction of hemolysis.

Keywords: Phosphorus, Hemoglobin, Anemia, Chronic Kidney Disease, FGF23

Introduction

Phosphorus is a macroelement found in the body; 85% of it is deposited in the bone as crystals of hydroxyapatite, 14% in the intracellular compartment as a component of nucleic acids, plasma membranes and involved in all cellular energetic processes, and only 1% is extracellular [1].

Of the latter, 70% is organic phosphorous and 30% is inorganic phosphorous. Inorganic phosphorous can be protein-bound, complexed with sodium, calcium, and magnesium, or circulating as mono- or di-hydrogen forms. About 800 mg of phosphorous is  introduced with the food, and the kidneys filter across the glomerulus about 90% of the daily phosphate load. The residual 10% is excreted by the gastrointestinal system.

Chronic Kidney disease (CKD) impairs phosphorus excretion due to the reduction of the skillful nephron mass. As a consequence of this, parathyroid hormone (PTH) and fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23) are over-secreted from the early stages of CKD, to prevent an increase in serum phosphorous concentration [2].

Both PTH and FGF23 increase phosphorus urinary excretion but, conversely to FGF23, PTH is related to serum calcium due to the relative activation of calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR). Indeed, PTH limits calcium gastrointestinal absorption because it reduces 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D levels. This negative feedback tray maintains serum calcium and phosphorus within normal ranges in individuals with normal kidney function. The progression of renal disease causes the failure of this equilibrium and hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, and tertiary hyperparathyroidism may occur. 

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Comparison between Creatinine Clearance and eGFRcyst-crea: a real-life experience

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Vincenzo Calabrese

Vincenzo Calabrese 1, Vincenzo Labbozzetta 1, Antonella Lipari1, Valeria Labbozzetta1, Guido Gembillo1, Valeria Cernaro1, Giovanni Luigi Tripepi2, Domenico Santoro1

1 Unit of Nephrology and Dialysis, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, A.O.U. “G. Martino”, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
2 CNR-IBIM, Clinical Epidemiology and Physiopathology of Renal Diseases and Hypertension of Reggio Calabria, Reggio Calabria, Italy

Corresponding author
Vincenzo Calabrese,
Unit of Nephrology and Dialysis, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, A.O.U. “G. Martino”, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
v.calabrese@outlook.it
Tel: +39 3208736905

 

Abstract

Introduction: The evaluation of renal function is computed using the estimated glomerular filtration rate methods or the measured glomerular filtration rate. Cystatin C has been well studied as marker of renal function compared to serum creatinine, but only few studies compare Glomerular Filtration Rates estimated including both creatinine and cystatin (eGFRcyst-crea) to creatinine clearance (CrCl). This cross-sectional study compares CrCl and eGFRcyst-crea with eGFRcrea and searches for correlation with comorbidities.
Methods: This cross-sectional study consists of 78 patients hospitalized for acute and/or chronic renal disease. We performed the concordance correlation coefficient analysis between the eGFRcrea and the CrCl and eGFRcyst-crea in the whole sample and in the various subgroups.
Results: Steiger’s comparison of correlations from dependent samples showed a correlation coefficient between C-reactive protein and eGFRcyst-crea stronger than between C-reactive protein and CrCl (Z: 2.51, p=0.012). Similar results were showed with the association with procalcitonin (Z: 5.24, p<0.001), serum potassium (Z: -3.13, p=0.002), and severe CKD (Z: -2.54, p=0.011). The concordance correlation coefficient test showed major differences between diagnostic methods compared to eGFR-crea in diabetic subgroup, severe CKD, and in procalcitonin higher than 0.5ng/ml. Discussion: The demonstration of a strong concordance between the eGFRcrea and the eGFRcyst-crea allows us to diagnose and to stage CKD better than creatinine clearance in patients with high inflammatory status. Furthermore, this information opens new research scenarios, and further, larger studies are needed to confirm these hypotheses.
Keywords: Phosphorus, Hemoglobin, Anemia, Chronic Kidney Disease, FGF23, Generalized estimating equation

Introduction

The association of cystatin C with renal function has been studied for more than 25 years. Cystatin C has been described to have better diagnostic performance than creatinine for assessing renal function, particularly in detecting small reductions in glomerular filtration rate (GFR).

Since cystatin C is a low-molecular-weight protein produced by all nucleated cells, it is less influenced by variables such as age, body weight or diet and it has been proposed as a more reliable marker of kidney function than serum creatinine. 

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Update 2017 of the KDIGO guidelines on Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD). What are the real changes?

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Marzia Pasquali, MD, PhD1; Antonio Bellasi, MD, PhD2; Giuseppe Cianciolo, MD3; Carlo Massimetti, MD4; Maria Cristina Mereu, MD5; Luigi Morrone, MD6; Vincenzo Panuccio, MD7
A nome del GdS Elementi Traccia e Metabolismo Minerale della Società Italiana di Nefrologia.

1 UOC Nefrologia, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Policlinico Umberto I di Roma, Italia;
2 Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, ASST- Lariana, Como, Italia;
3 UO di Nefrologia Dialisi e Trapianto, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna Policlinico S.Orsola-Malpighi, Italia;
4 Centro di Riferimento di Nefrologia e Dialisi, Ospedale Belcolle, Viterbo, Italia;
5 Ospedale N.S. di Bonaria, San Gavino Mon.le, Cagliari, Italia;
6 Struttura Complessa di Nefrologia e Dialisi - P.O.C. "S.S. Annunziata", A.S.L. Taranto, Italia;
7 UOC di Nefrologia, Dialisi e Trapianto del GOM “BMM”, di Reggio Calabria, Italia;

Autore Corrispondente:
Dott.ssa Marzia Pasquali
UOC Nefrologia, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Policlinico Umberto I di Roma
Viale del Policlinico
00161 Roma, Italia
Tel:0649975138
E-mail: marzia.pasquali@uniroma1.it

 

Abstract

Guidelines for the assessment, diagnosis and therapy of the alterations that characterize the CKD-MBD are an important support in the clinical practice of the nephrologist. Compared to the KDIGO guidelines published in 2009, the 2017 update made changes on some topics on which there was previously no strong evidence both in terms of diagnosis and therapy. The recommendations include the diagnosis of bone anomalies in CKD-MBD and the treatment of mineral metabolism abnormalities with particular regard to hyperphosphataemia, calcium levels, secondary hyperparathyroidism and anti-resorptive therapies. The Italian Study Group on Mineral Metabolism, in reviewing the 2017 recommendations, aimed to assess the weight of the evidence that led to this update. In fact, on some topics there has not been a substantial difference on the degree of evidence compared to the previous guidelines. The Italian Study Group emphasizes the points that may still reserve critical issues, including interpretation, and invites an evaluation that is articulated and personalized for each patient.

 

Key words: CKD-MBD, BMD, Bone Biopsy, Calcemia, Phosphorus, Secondary Hyperparathyroidism

Sorry, this entry is only available in Italian.

Introduzione

L’alterazione del metabolismo minerale è una condizione estremamente prevalente e complessa dal punto di vista fisiopatologico nel paziente con malattia renale cronica nei diversi stadi e dopo il trapianto.
Tale condizione si associa ad un elevato rischio di mortalità e morbilità cardiovascolare in questa popolazione di pazienti. L’individuazione di mezzi diagnostici (bioumorali e strumentali) che possono consentire di identificare lo specifico quadro clinico e la conseguente terapia rappresenta uno degli obiettivi più importanti per noi Nefrologi.
A tal fine già nel 2009 venivano prodotte le linee guida Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) per la valutazione, diagnosi, prevenzione e trattamento della CKD-MBD (1).
La recente pubblicazione di un Update 2017 delle linee guida KDIGO sulla CKD-MBD (2) è nata dalla necessità di aggiornare, in base agli studi randomizzati controllati e prospettici di coorte prodotti dopo la pubblicazione delle linee guida KDIGO 2009 (1), le raccomandazioni precedenti che mancavano in molti casi di evidenze di elevata qualità.
L’Update 2017 ha riguardato solo alcuni argomenti quali: la diagnosi delle anormalità nella CKD-MBD; il trattamento della CKD-MBD in termini di riduzione a target del fosfato e mantenimento della calcemia, trattamento delle anormalità del PTH, trattamento delle anormalità ossee con anti riassorbitivi ed altre terapie per l’osteoporosi; la valutazione e trattamento della malattia ossea nel trapianto renale (Tabella 1).

Il Gruppo di Studio Italiano sul metabolismo minerale ha inteso presentare un breve sunto delle recenti linee guida KDIGO sottolineando alcuni punti che possono riservare ancora criticità anche di interpretazione. 

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CKD-MBD in Peritoneal Dialysis

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Anna Rachele Rocca, Tania Gnerre Musto, Sandro Mazzaferro

Dipartimento di Scienze Cardiovascolari Respiratorie Nefrologiche Anestetiche e Geriatriche. Sapienza Università di Roma

Autore Corrispondente:
Anna Rachele Rocca
Dipartimento di Scienze Cardiovascolari Respiratorie Nefrologiche Anestetiche e Geriatriche. Sapienza Università di Roma
Viale del Policlinico 155
00100 Roma, Italia
Tel/Fax 0649974293
E-mail: racheleroc@gmail.com

 

Abstract

CKD-MBD is a systemic disorder of the mineral and bone metabolism as a result of CKD. The clinical relevance of this syndrome has led to the identification of the biochemical targets to be achieved in order to improve the outcome of the patient. However, in hemodialysis (HD) and peritoneal dialysis (DP) patients, these targets are not reached. Hyperphosphatemia is a predictor of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. In DP the removal of phosphorus (P) occurs by diffusion and convection, with a contribution of ultrafiltration of about 11%. P clearance is time dependent, with differences between CAPD and APD and depending on membrane transport characteristics. Residual renal function plays a key role in the P balance. Calcium (Ca) clearance in PD depends on the calcium levels, calcium concentration in dialysate and ultrafiltration. Positive Ca balance brings to Adynamic Bone Disease. Several bone-derived substances, some of them with hormonal action, have shed new light on the bone- cardiac axis. The hormonal functions of bone are likely to be related to histological lesions that develop during chronic renal failure. Compared to the past, recent data show less obvious differences in bone histomorphometry parameters between HD patients and PD patients. However, in PD patients fewer fractures are reported, probably due to different bone quality.

Key Words: CKD-MBD, peritoneal dialysis, calcium, phosphorus, Adynamic Bone Disease

Sorry, this entry is only available in Italian.

Nel corso degli ultimi anni numerose evidenze scientifiche hanno mostrato una stretta correlazione tra i disordini del metabolismo minerale, le anomalie ossee, le calcificazioni extrascheletriche e l’aumento della morbilità e mortalità nei pazienti con malattia renale cronica (1). La tradizionale definizione di osteodistrofia renale non esprimeva in maniera completa questa sindrome complessa che invece è stata riconosciuta tale e ha preso il nome di CKD-Mineral Bone Disorders (Madrid 2005). Pertanto il termine CKD-MBD definisce un disordine sistemico del metabolismo minerale ed osseo dovuto alla malattia renale cronica che si manifesta in presenza di una sola o una combinazione delle seguenti condizioni: alterazioni dei parametri di laboratorio (calcemia, fosforemia, PTH, vitamina D); anomalie nel turnover, nella mineralizzazione, nel volume, nella crescita lineare o nella resistenza dell’osso; calcificazioni vascolari o dei tessuti molli (2). 

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